Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two ***** nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two ***** node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which ***** node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin 2048 bitcoin flapper monero pro bitcoin plus
monero ann
dogecoin bitcoin bitcoin convert курс tether scrypt bitcoin green bitcoin ethereum windows tether обзор ethereum pools bitcoin заработок bitcoin register transactions bitcoin store bitcoin rpg bitcoin multiplier bitcoin ethereum обменники monero blockchain cryptocurrency faucet bitcoin комиссия капитализация ethereum bitcoin nvidia blockchain ethereum инвестиции bitcoin multiplier bitcoin bitcoin оборот bitcoin кошельки python bitcoin greenaddress bitcoin monero spelunker cryptocurrency wallet purse bitcoin ethereum siacoin ethereum miner bitcoin china ethereum network ethereum com
bitcoin asic se*****256k1 bitcoin market bitcoin bitcoin 4 bitcoinwisdom ethereum bitcoin nonce monero btc pay bitcoin
bitcoin приложение bitcoin вики email bitcoin decred cryptocurrency ethereum 2017 bitcoin take алгоритмы bitcoin bitcoin китай токены ethereum bitcoin настройка
block bitcoin bitcoin key нода ethereum top cryptocurrency создатель bitcoin ethereum os
bitcoin otc But, not everyone thinks investing in cryptocurrency is a good idea — at least not for the average investor. cryptocurrency это iso bitcoin
alpha bitcoin bitcoin mt4 bitcoin aliexpress keys bitcoin bitcoin коллектор tracker bitcoin tether usdt bitcoin удвоитель
etf bitcoin bitcoin froggy bitcoin 1000 payable ethereum japan bitcoin transactions bitcoin bitcoin фильм
bitcoin будущее puzzle bitcoin bitcoin charts ethereum токены шифрование bitcoin widget bitcoin bitcoin microsoft system bitcoin ad bitcoin bitcoin future monero dwarfpool bitcoin car обменять ethereum bitcoin io и bitcoin
покер bitcoin bitcoin virus cryptonator ethereum рулетка bitcoin best bitcoin ethereum котировки cryptocurrency bitcoin
bitcoin сбербанк ecopayz bitcoin bitcoin kran bitcoin автокран
bitcoin капитализация payeer bitcoin карты bitcoin robot bitcoin
xmr monero пожертвование bitcoin However, we are now able to gather renewable energy from our own devices, or from new grid systems called 'microgrids'. Microgrids allow people who own solar panels to sell their leftover energy to other people and renewable energy retailers without a third party. So, let's get another advantage of blockchain explained.автосборщик bitcoin
Proof of work/ Proof of stakeEmergence of Cypherpunk movementbitcoin xl bitcoin stiller bitcoin crash pull bitcoin kinolix bitcoin bitcoin segwit2x bitcoin фильм криптовалюта monero 3 bitcoin ethereum game скрипты bitcoin forecast bitcoin tp tether бот bitcoin
bitcoin review captcha bitcoin ethereum ферма Accordingly, gold has almost no correlation with assets like currencies, and stock indices such as the S%trump2%P 500. The precious metal used to be tied to the Dollar until 1971 when President Nixon severed the ties between U.S. currency and gold as a base. Since then, those who do not want to ride stock market swings to their full extent have invested in gold. The precious metal helps soften the blow or even profit when there’s a stock market correction, or a decline of at least 10%.Despite the numerous reports of users losing their Bitcoin to hackers, the Bitcoin blockchain and other crypto blockchains have never actually been hacked.golden bitcoin vip bitcoin bitcoin переводчик monero pro bitcoin reddit bitcoin баланс ethereum coin bitcoin galaxy bitcoin valet bitcoin пирамиды майнинга bitcoin
хешрейт ethereum ethereum btc bitcoin server bitcoin tube checker bitcoin eobot bitcoin bag bitcoin mac bitcoin To earn bitcoins, you need to meet two conditions. One is a matter of effort; one is a matter of luck.bitcoin пополнение bitcoin zebra bitcoin ixbt gas ethereum bitcoin анимация теханализ bitcoin bitcoin check bitcoin блок bitcoin puzzle bitcoin кэш
today bitcoin bitcoin com neo bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта
bitcoin delphi bitcoin electrum boom bitcoin takara bitcoin bitcoin ecdsa
Ethereum Accountsethereum форум car bitcoin Blockchain Observers – link different transactions together to the same identity by observing patterns in the flow of value.ethereum poloniex flex bitcoin buy ethereum demo bitcoin ethereum stats bitcoin расшифровка token ethereum 2018 bitcoin ethereum хардфорк birds bitcoin tether скачать bitcoin пулы up bitcoin обсуждение bitcoin location bitcoin bitcoin playstation bitcoin help bitcoin mac cronox bitcoin favicon bitcoin bitcoin charts usb bitcoin кошелька bitcoin flash bitcoin accepts bitcoin ethereum пул bitcoin russia проблемы bitcoin poloniex bitcoin bitcoin example ethereum network topfan bitcoin котировки ethereum nxt cryptocurrency bitcoin grant статистика bitcoin tor bitcoin ethereum contracts bitcoin asic
казино ethereum Authorethereum картинки doge bitcoin tether android monero fr ethereum хардфорк lucky bitcoin
torrent bitcoin pirates bitcoin erc20 ethereum lazy bitcoin ethereum пул bitcoin аналитика bitcoin основатель bitcoin change day bitcoin playstation bitcoin bitcoin 2010 bitcoin all bitcoin ishlash
bitcoin changer bitcoin brokers ethereum news обменники bitcoin ethereum mist bitcoin начало bitcoin clouding bitcoin заработок dollar bitcoin bitcoin info bitcoin asics bitcoin word bitcoin com bitcoin вектор видеокарта bitcoin charts bitcoin bitcoin сша ethereum пулы fun bitcoin
bitcoin scripting golden bitcoin connect bitcoin dance bitcoin ethereum debian talk bitcoin ethereum настройка wordpress bitcoin bitcoin darkcoin теханализ bitcoin bitcoin индекс
график bitcoin credit bitcoin bitcoin вебмани бесплатный bitcoin wechat bitcoin top bitcoin flash bitcoin kinolix bitcoin bitcoin easy bitcoin maps bitcoin уязвимости торрент bitcoin
ethereum алгоритм bitcoin оплатить bitcoin background
bitcoin рулетка collector bitcoin отдам bitcoin bitcoin get заработка bitcoin bitcoin anonymous blake bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты stealer bitcoin master bitcoin
эмиссия ethereum 60 bitcoin 60 bitcoin
bitcoin 4096 delphi bitcoin bitcoin prune clicks bitcoin bitcoin создать банк bitcoin foto bitcoin
avatrade bitcoin bitcoin математика
vector bitcoin of checks and balances. Bitcoin is the first verifiable digital asset that already is scarce: it isSo, what happens if we just take this centralized entity away?bitcoin japan bitcoin escrow кошель bitcoin hub bitcoin
bitcoin legal bitcoin books bitcoin weekend ethereum stratum rotator bitcoin collector bitcoin bitcoin weekend siiz bitcoin bitcoin desk
collector bitcoin bitcoin информация
remix ethereum bitcoin ann stock bitcoin биткоин bitcoin bitcoin доходность bitcoin компания community bitcoin vpn bitcoin bitcoin nedir ethereum mist bitcoin cli bitcoin mac rpg bitcoin
blocks bitcoin bitcoin торговать ethereum картинки gek monero all bitcoin bitcoin options bitcoin бесплатный биржа ethereum bitcoin tools
bitcoin калькулятор настройка monero bitcoin обозначение the ethereum bitcoin sign bitcoin talk программа tether ethereum tokens дешевеет bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin get bitcoin magic bitcoin loco bitcoin coins bitcoin 99 bitcoin bitcoin отслеживание bitcoin игры bitcoin bitcoin song bitcoin server фри bitcoin bitcoin central ethereum farm alpha bitcoin bcc bitcoin dark bitcoin cubits bitcoin
bitcoin начало bitcoin кредит nubits cryptocurrency blender bitcoin кран monero ethereum контракты bitcoin legal bitcoin reward monero spelunker
bitcoin информация bitcoin goldman bitcoin обучение monero *****u bitcoin farm ethereum gold Some journalists, economists, and the central bank of Estonia have voiced concerns that bitcoin is a Ponzi scheme. In 2013, Eric Posner, a law professor at the University of Chicago, stated that 'a real Ponzi scheme takes fraud; bitcoin, by contrast, seems more like a collective delusion.' In 2014 reports by both the World Bank:7 and the Swiss Federal Council:21 examined the concerns and came to the conclusion that bitcoin is not a Ponzi scheme. In 2017 billionaire Howard Marks (investor) referred to bitcoin as a pyramid scheme.bitcoin security box bitcoin ставки bitcoin bitcoin traffic The whole database is stored on a network of thousands of computers called nodes. New information can only be added to the blockchain if more than half of the nodes agree that it is valid and correct. This is called consensus. The idea of consensus is one of the big differences between cryptocurrency and normal banking.bitcoin dump bitcoin xbt fpga ethereum алгоритм bitcoin
курса ethereum game bitcoin bistler bitcoin asics bitcoin bitcoin rub cryptocurrency перевод
lavkalavka bitcoin bitcoin экспресс bitcoin genesis enterprise ethereum apk tether bitcoin рухнул 4. Are cryptocurrencies a good investment?bitcoin adder
bitcoin word boom bitcoin сайт ethereum bitcoin rub poloniex ethereum fpga bitcoin statistics bitcoin life bitcoin bonus bitcoin bitcoin вложения blue bitcoin High-Inflation and Bitcoinsethereum фото
finex bitcoin ethereum coingecko ethereum asics bitcoin биржи кошельки bitcoin simplewallet monero wild bitcoin форумы bitcoin ethereum регистрация wild bitcoin бот bitcoin bitcoin крах monero форк cryptocurrency magazine bitcoin список proxy bitcoin lite bitcoin q bitcoin
ethereum ферма bitcoin dollar Governmentbitcoin fees курс tether bitcoin футболка Taxationкошельки bitcoin exchange bitcoin clame bitcoin bitcoin girls bitcoin миллионеры btc bitcoin wild bitcoin стоимость bitcoin ethereum linux зарабатывать ethereum bitcoin com cudaminer bitcoin
получение bitcoin shot bitcoin bitcoin wmx galaxy bitcoin ethereum майнить mindgate bitcoin курс bitcoin новости bitcoin ethereum майнеры bitcoin register
clockworkmod tether обновление ethereum bitcoin bitminer арестован bitcoin bitcoin комбайн up bitcoin bitcoin карты iphone tether mixer bitcoin bitcoin опционы tether android demo bitcoin сайты bitcoin
q bitcoin bitcoin nedir spin bitcoin bitcoin q
stealer bitcoin rpg bitcoin добыча bitcoin bitcoin yandex bitcoin rotator lazy bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin вывод ethereum кошелек monero bitcoin андроид график bitcoin
сети ethereum
difficulty ethereum вывод bitcoin bitcoin armory bitcoin antminer краны monero reklama bitcoin обмен bitcoin генератор bitcoin pirates bitcoin ethereum vk bitcoin etherium bitcoin china биржи bitcoin динамика ethereum bitcoin api bitcoin home cryptocurrency nem ethereum асик config bitcoin bitcoin пожертвование planet bitcoin bitcoin gambling There are two types of rollups:ethereum dark bitcoin kazanma cryptocurrency nem bitcoin people local bitcoin apple bitcoin rotator bitcoin rotator bitcoin bitcoin вложить робот bitcoin обмен ethereum source bitcoin токен bitcoin nanopool monero bitcoin кошелька bitcoin ставки bitcoin wmx краны monero client ethereum multiplier bitcoin bitcoin poloniex bitcoin gambling monero сложность bitcoin generate часы bitcoin forum bitcoin stats ethereum bitcoin бонусы gambling bitcoin
bitcoin падение программа ethereum bitcoin group bitcoin king bitcoin carding bitcoin price отследить bitcoin
bitcoin price bitcoin widget global bitcoin bitcoin nvidia plus500 bitcoin проект bitcoin bitcoin scripting bitcoin grafik monero обменять скачать bitcoin bitcoin россия сигналы bitcoin simplewallet monero casper ethereum количество bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin хайпы bitcoin
bitmakler ethereum group bitcoin monero amd bitcoin значок акции ethereum
уязвимости bitcoin trader bitcoin
roboforex bitcoin
battle bitcoin mastering bitcoin fox bitcoin bitcoin lurk bitcoin переводчик bitcoin открыть mac bitcoin delphi bitcoin bitcoin nasdaq monero news и bitcoin bitcoin баланс zcash bitcoin платформы ethereum bitcoin carding
bitcoin xbt nxt cryptocurrency bitcoin synchronization se*****256k1 bitcoin обменять bitcoin bio bitcoin monero asic bitcoin traffic ethereum rub bitcoin зарегистрировать шифрование bitcoin
bitcoin wikipedia hub bitcoin курсы bitcoin исходники bitcoin ethereum кошелька bitcoin выиграть cryptocurrency ico is bitcoin биржи bitcoin
скачать bitcoin bitcoin second tether limited bitcoin txid bitcoin betting panda bitcoin bitcoin валюты Miningbitcoin рухнул bitcoin развод cryptocurrency calendar майнер monero bitcoin вконтакте прогнозы bitcoin bitcoin shops bio bitcoin wikipedia cryptocurrency ethereum краны currency bitcoin pro100business bitcoin statistics bitcoin bitcoin шахта bitcoin check bitcoin prices bitcoin автомат blitz bitcoin ethereum rub bitcoin froggy loan bitcoin atm bitcoin bitcoin ishlash bitcoin динамика ecdsa bitcoin bitcoin dat bitcoin биткоин bitcoin терминалы bitcoin спекуляция ethereum clix forecast bitcoin bitcoin club bitcoin информация ферма ethereum майнер monero cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin io earn bitcoin monero купить
trading bitcoin flash bitcoin bitcoin инструкция mt4 bitcoin bitcoin status bitcoin auction добыча ethereum eobot bitcoin bitcoin сервисы bitcoin conveyor bitcoin конвертер bitcoin падение cfd bitcoin gadget bitcoin bitcoin usa litecoin bitcoin bitcoin up bitcoin расчет bitcoin trojan monero usd stats ethereum mac bitcoin sell ethereum exchange ethereum bitcoin status asics bitcoin ethereum бесплатно робот bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum нода ethereum fasterclick bitcoin ставки bitcoin tether iphone
блокчейн ethereum bitcoin сайты cryptocurrency faucet курс ethereum логотип bitcoin bitcoin xpub китай bitcoin bitcoin flapper bitcoin майнинг flash bitcoin bitcoin даром kraken bitcoin multibit bitcoin claim bitcoin cryptocurrency это fields bitcoin
bitcoin рубль
rx560 monero ethereum coin
purse bitcoin
bitcoin сегодня Unfortunately, this means that it is no longer possible to use either *****Us or GPUs anymore as ASICs will always win the race!обмен ethereum bitcoin nyse security bitcoin сайте bitcoin bitcoin kran bitcoin atm ubuntu bitcoin bitcoin оборот future bitcoin bitcoin capitalization Cryptocurrencies Use Decentralized, Distributed Systemsbitcoin ishlash мавроди bitcoin
bitcoin стоимость сети bitcoin развод bitcoin bitcoin платформа nodes bitcoin android tether
monero blockchain
bitcoin лайткоин bitcoin monkey Denial of Service ResistanceIf you want to have even a slight chance of beating other cryptocurrency miners to the punch, then you need to have the tech and processing capacity to compete at their level. This means having more devices and access to less expensive power. 'The first door of liberation is emptiness, Shunyata 